Exploration of Space

The scientific study of all celestial objects, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, as well as everything that occurs outside of the Earth’s atmosphere is called Astronomy. One major question presented by astronomy is ‘How was the universe formed and how has it changed since its formation?’ This question and others are examined through a number of scientific fields and processes, such as evolution, physics, and chemistry.

Astronomy is widely regarded as one of the oldest scientific fields of study. Civilizations from ancient times observed the night sky and documented what they saw. Artifacts that have been uncovered by archaeologists suggest early astronomy recordings of stars and other observations seen in the sky. Early people used the stars to measure time in the long-term by formulating calendars. Not only were the stars used to make observations and to measure time, but some early civilizations used stars as a navigational tool, especially when sailing through the ocean.

Today, astronomy is a vital tool for the further development of space astronomy exploration. Exploration of outer space is done by various methods, such as manned spacecraft flights and remotely-controlled robotics. Both space astronomy and space exploration are professions which complement each other, while providing useful information to the development of astronomy space and relying on each other’s advancements. Without space exploration, images from the Hubble Space Telescope would not be possible. At the same time, without images from the Hubble Space Telescope, dreams and planning of deep space exploration would not be feasible.

Technology has always paved the way for advancements in space exploration and astronomy. Space exploration would not be possible if it wasn’t for the invention of liquid-fueled rocket engines and of course, the telescope used for astronomy. Space exploration is continued due to many reasons, such as advancing scientific knowledge, as a means of united nations together, for military and strategic advantages, and for the preservation of humanity’s future.

Space astronomy and exploration has been historically used as a proxy for the rivalries that were fueled during the Cold War. The term, “Space Race” was often used to describe the Soviet Union and United States’ entry into space exploration. The Soviet Union was the first nation to put a man in space to orbit the Earth, which was called Sputnik 1. The United States, however, was the first nation to put a man on the moon, using the spacecraft Apollo 11.

While most space exploration were performed by governmental-funded agencies, such as NASA, the future of space exploration may turn out to be quite different. There are already plans of private ventures of spaceflight companies. There are even incentives given for privately-funded entities to place a robot on the moon successfully, such as in the case of the Google Lunar X-Prize. This is a contest that will award a sum of $20 million to the first team to perform this task.

Radio Astronomy

The scientific study of all celestial objects, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, as well as everything that occurs outside of the Earth’s atmosphere is called Astronomy. One major question presented by astronomy is ‘How was the universe formed and how has it changed since its formation?’ This question and others are examined through a number of scientific fields and processes, such as evolution, physics, and chemistry.

Astronomy is widely regarded as one of the oldest scientific fields of study. Civilizations from ancient times observed the night sky and documented what they saw. Artifacts that have been uncovered by archaeologists suggest early astronomy recordings of stars and other observations seen in the sky. Early people used the stars to measure time in the long-term by formulating calendars. Not only were the stars used to make observations and to measure time, but some early civilizations used stars as a navigational tool, especially when sailing through the ocean.

Today, celestial objects are observed using many different types of astronomy equipment, both simple and complicated in nature. With the introduction of new observational technologies, astronomy observation has been divided up into several different types, each requiring specific uses of astronomy equipment. The different groups of observational astronomy have been generally divided up depending on the observed area of the electromagnetic spectrum. Specific telescopes must be used for each type of observation because they are only sensitive to a certain part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Radio Astronomy:
Radio astronomy is concerned with the observation of radiation wavelengths that have a distance of no more than millimeter apart from each other. This type of observational astronomy is generally the easiest to perform due to the nature of the wavelengths. Radio waves are produced by astronomical objects through a process called thermal emission, these radio waves are observed on Earth in the form of synchrotron radiation. This type of radiation is caused by electrons that oscillate around magnetic fields. Radio telescopes are used to pick up these radio waves.

Infrared Astronomy:
Astronomy based on the detection of infrared radiation. Infrared radiation has wavelengths that are slightly longer than red light. Infrared radiation is absorbed a great deal in the Earth’s atmosphere, making it very difficult to pick up unless telescopes are positioned in high and/or dry places. It is ideal to set up infrared telescopes and astronomy equipment in space because without the Earth’s atmosphere to distort infrared radiation, very detailed infrared images can be captured.

Optical Astronomy:
The oldest form of astronomy, this type picks up images in the form of visible light. Originally, telescopes were used to observe celestial objects and then drawn by hand. Today, telescopes capture images using photograph astronomy equipment.

Ultraviolet Astronomy:
Observations by astronomy equipment and telescopes in ultraviolet wavelengths, a type of wavelength that is generally absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere. As a result, ultraviolet astronomy can only be performed with telescopes that are placed at a high region in the Earth’s atmosphere or in space.

Astronomy is the scientific study of all celestial objects– in other words, the study of all planets, stars, and galaxies. Astronomy also includes the study of everything else that occurs outside of the Earth’s atmosphere. Astronomy attempts to answer questions about how the universe was formed and how it has evolved over the years into the way it is now. Astronomy observations are done through many specific scientific processes and disciplines, such as evolution, physics and chemistry.

Telescopes on the Ground Begin Searching for Extraterrestrial Life:
Astronomy news makes scientific headlines every day as techniques for observing objects in the universe become increasingly more advanced. Recently, astronomy news has reported images from powerful telescopes on the Earth’s surface in Hawaii. This is significant news because this is a rare moment where significant findings have been made from the Earth’s surface rather than from telescopes on satellites orbiting the Earth or traveling through space, such as the Hubble or Spitzer space telescopes.

The first major finding using this ground-based telescope has yielded some promising news in the astronomy news community. A large distant planet was observed from the Infrared Telescope Facility called HD 189733b, located about 63 light years from the constellation of Vulpecula. The telescope that picked up these observations is located on a volcanic island in Hawaii and showed signs that the planet contains methane in its atmosphere. It was found that the methane in the atmosphere was absorbing radiation nearby and reflecting it as light. According to researchers, the methane found is very similar to traces of methane found within the atmospheres of both Jupiter and Saturn.

This is a significant finding within the astronomy community because methane is a gas that is generated by living organisms on Earth. This contrasts the way that methane is produced on such planets as Jupiter and Saturn, in which methane is produced by light converging with other chemicals within their atmosphere. Researchers and astronomers will soon better understand how these two ways of creating methane contrast from each other.

Collision of Asteroids Leaves Astronomy Community Baffled:
In further recent astronomy news, the Hubble Space Telescope has found an X-shaped pattern of debris and a trail of dust accompanying it. Many astronomers believe this has been caused by a collision of asteroids, but an observation such as this has never been made before. According to astronomy researchers, asteroid impacts are generally very violent, as they may be traveling more than 10,000 mph at the moment of impact. This is a contrast from the relatively evenly dispersed set of debris that follows a collision. The trail has been theorized to be caused by a debris falling off the surface following the impact between two objects, and it is not caused by ice melting away like in normal cases of traveling comets.

According to one astronomy theory, the asteroid belt contains significant evidence of ancient collisions, causing fragments to scatter across the solar system. One of those fragments is thought to have possibly hit the Earth and caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Hubble Telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope is one of the most famous space telescopes ever conceived, having been in orbit for over nineteen years and counting and capturing some of the most breathtaking views of the galaxy ever taken. Named after the American astronomer, Edwin Hubble, the Hubble telescope is one of the largest and versatile telescopes ever deployed to orbit Earth. The Hubble telescope is a collaberative effort between both the European Space Agency and NASA. Originally dreamed up in the 1920s, the Hubble telescope project finally got off the ground during the 1970s and launched in 1990. After being calibrated properly in 1993, the hubble telescope was able to take some of the most breath-taking images of space because of its location outside of Earth’s distorting atmosphere. One of the most significant calculations to come out of the Hubble Space Telescopes launch was the determination of the rate in which the universe is expanding.

General Servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope:
Since the Hubble telescope’s launch, it has had five servicing missions, with the last one occurring in May of 2009. Servicing missions are generally designed to replace parts that are not working properly or to replace parts with improved versions. The service mission in 2009 was designed to be the final mission ever to service the telescope and make improvements to increase its range and optic technology. The final mission was designed to keep the Hubble Space Telescope functioning until the year 2014, when the successor to it, The James Webb Space Telescope is prepared and readied for launch.

Improvements Made During the Final Mission to the Hubble Telescope:
First, the Hubble Space Telescope’s Near-Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer to increase “high-precision polarimetry”. This is a technique for observing light that has been scattered when astronomers aim to identify what are called “proto-planets”. Astronomy uses polarimetry as a device for seeing around corners based on the way light is reflected around them. This technique has been done without spending millions of dollars in new calibration tools or expensive equipment. It is essentially a new scientific technique that improves the calibration of the Hubble Space Telescope. This is a process that was calculated by the Space Telescope Science Institute, and is not the same as the physical mission to repair the Hubble Telescope.

The mission to the Hubble Space Telescope took place in May of 2009. The effort helped to install two new highly-advanced cameras until the Hubble telescope, in addition to the two cameras that already exit on it. The existing cameras also need repairs in order to work to full capacity. Gyroscopes that help scientists determine the orientation of the Hubble telescope were also replaced with improved devices. Further hardware was also installed into the telescope to ensure that it will function properly at least until 2014 when the new infrared telescope is launched around the same time. The five different spacewalks that took place lasted about 36 hours and 56 minutes. In total, the Hubble Space Telescope has saw 166 hours and six minutes of repair time given to it.

Milky Way Galaxy

The Milky Way Galaxy, also known as the Milky Way or the Galaxy, is a galaxy which contains the Solar System in which Earth exists. The Milky Way is classified by astronomers as a “barred spiral galaxy” and is located within a group of other galaxies called a Local Group of galaxies. While the Milky Way is large, to give an idea in relative terms, the Milky Way is just one of billions of galaxies that have been observed by scientists and astronomers. Technically, many people believe that the term “Milky Way” should be used to describe the band of light that the galaxy creates in the night sky, as opposed to the term “Milky Way Galaxy”, which should be used to refer to the galaxy itself.

The Milky Way Galaxy from Earth:
From Earth, the view of the Milky Way Galaxy shows a hazard white band of light which arches across the celestial sphere. The pale light from the Milky Way is caused by a group of stars and other material that is contained within the galaxy body. Judging locations of it is easy when observed in relation to a constellation. The Milky Way Galaxy looks brightest when observed from the direction of the constellation of Sagittarius when looking into the center of it. It spreads further north to the constellation of Cassiopeia and south to the constellation of Crux. The fact that the Milky Way appears to divide the night sky into two separate hemispheres indicates that the solar system that contains Earth is located very close to the galactic plane.

In urban areas and even suburban areas, it is extremely difficult to see the Milky Way because of its very low surface brightness. The reason for the low surface brightness is due to the interstellar medium, which in turn makes it extremely difficult to see the bright galactic center of it.

Characteristics of the Milky Way:
The “stellar disk” of the Milky Way Galaxy is about 100,000 light years in diameter and is about 1,000 light years thick. Astronomers believe that the galaxy is home to approximately 200 to 400 billion stars. The reason why scientists are unsure of the exact number is because of the large amount of low-mass stars, which are sometimes not classified as stars at all. This may seem like a lot of stars, but speaking once again relative terms, the neighboring galaxy, Andromeda, trumps the Milky Way, and has about one trillion stars. The distance between stars increases as one would travel further from the center of the galaxy. The surrounding area of the stellar disk contains a thick band of gas which is estimated to have a thickness of about 12,000 light years. In addition, many recent observations proves that the Milky Way is much larger than previously thought and may be similar in size to Andromeda.

Astronomer

An astronomer is a type of scientist who studies celestial bodies in the universe, such as planets, stars, galaxies and other objects existing throughout space. In a traditional sense, astronomy has always been concerned with the discovery, observation and classification of bodies and masses found through the universe, while another discipline called astrophysics tried to explain why phenomena in space occurred and why they existed. Today, the distinction between the two disciplines do not have that distinction anymore because astronomers generally have PhDs in physics and astronomy. As a result, most of their work encompasses both traditional astronomer work along with functions of astrophysics as well.

Typically, astronomers are employed by prestigious research institution and universities as they spend a great deal of their valuable time researching various new discoveries examined by powerful telescopes and other instruments. They also have various other duties besides research, such as teaching, building instruments used to observe the universe, and aiding with day-to-day operations within high-tech observatories with powerful microscopes.

Surprisingly, becoming a professional astronomer is very difficult and there is only a handful of astronomers within the United States. The American Astronomical Society, a society of professional astronomers and other individuals interested in astronomy aimed at promoting and advancing astronomy knowledge and other similar disciplines of science, only has about 7,700 members. Other fields of science that the American Astronomical Society contains are physics, geology, and engineering, all disciplines with similar interests and ideals. In addition, the International Astronomical Union contains about 9,250 members across close to 90 different countries throughout the world who are involved in astronomical research on the PhD level.

Even though there is a small number of professional astronomers that practice advanced astronomical techniques and use powerful instruments, the number of amateur astronomers is quite large. Cities across the United States have astronomy clubs where amateur astronomers meet and host parties within their communities. The largest astronomy group in the world, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, has many professional and amateur astronomers, along with teachers from over 70 different nations.

So what does it mean to be an amateur astronomer? Like any normal hobby a person may have, amateur astronomers dedicate a few hours a week to astronomy, such as observing the night sky, and keeping up to date with the latest developments in astronomy research by subscribing to publications and science journals. Some amateur astronomers may even own high-powered telescopes and other expensive instruments, allowing many of them to make their own discoveries, while aiding professional researchers in the development of astronomical knowledge.

In modern times, astronomy is a lot more advanced then just looking through a telescope lens. Astronomers and engineers have constructed telescopes that are much more advanced than traditional ones, capable of observing objects that are hundreds of light years away. The average professional astronomer may spend a few days observing through an advanced telescope, but the rest of the entire year may be spent analyzing the data collected. Many astronomers also teach full time to graduate and undergraduate classes at universities.

Astronomy

The scientific study of all celestial objects, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, as well as everything that occurs outside of the Earth’s atmosphere is called Astronomy. One major question presented by astronomy is ‘How was the universe formed and how has it changed since its formation?’ This question and others are examined through a number of scientific fields and processes, such as evolution, physics, and chemistry. The history of astronomy is vast and encompasses many civilizations over thousands of years.

Astronomy is regarding as one of the oldest scientific fields of study, dating back to ancient times. Ancient civilizations began observing the night sky and recorded stars and other celestial bodies that they saw. They even documented them to make them easier to remember through the use of constellations. Artifacts have been uncovered by archaeologists, proving that patterns of stars in the sky have been recorded by early people in early astronomy history. Early civilizations even used astronomy as a tool to measure time by creating calendars that coincided with the cycles of the sun, moon and stars. In addition, the stars were used as a navigation tool for ships traveling across the ocean by observing stars in the sky to determine which direction they were heading in.

The Earliest History of Astronomy- Babylonia
The origin of Western astronomy history can be traced as far back as 1200 BC, by a civilization living in Mesopotamia. In this region, the kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria and Babylonia were located. Babylonia is known for having the earliest records of star cataloging, writing their findings in Sumerian. Babylonian observations began to improve during 747-733 BC as the discover of an 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses was observed and recorded.

Egypt:
Egypt’s large amount of technical skill and know-how required to build the ancient Pyramids suggests their advanced capabilities to observe the sky. The Pyramids were proven to have been aligned in a way as to be lined up with the pole star, a star in the constellation of Draco. Also, the Great Temple has been proven to have been built so that it would be lined up with the rising of the midwinter sun. At other times of the year, the corridor of the Great Temple is less illuminated then during the winter. During this time, astronomy and religious beliefs were strongly connected and celebrations and festivals were planned in relation to the observations made within the astronomy researchers during this time.

Greek:
The Ancient Greek civilization was the first to develop astronomy and to implement it with mathematics. They developed the first three dimensional demonstrations to show movement of celestial bodies. The influence of Greek astronomy would have a significant influence in the development of further research.

Copernican Revolution:
This is considered to be the renaissance of astronomy, largely influenced by Nicolaus Copernicus, who believed that the Earth revolved around the Sun, rather than the Sun and all other celestial bodies revolved around Earth. During this time, telescopes were developed to observe the sky, which paved the way for modern astronomy aspects and techniques of today.

Constellations

Constellations are used in modern astronomy to internationally define an area of the celestial sphere, which is an imaginary sphere concentric with Earth and rotating on the same axis as Earth. Traditionally, the term constellations refers to a pattern that is formed when imaginary lines are drawn in between stars close in proximity, forming an image. It is a tool to remember and identify stars which is still in use today. Overall, a constellation is any celestial bodies that appear in the sky to form a pattern. The main difference between constellations in the traditional sense and constellations of modern astronomy is that traditional constellations are patterns that appear identical to objects; while modern constellations are based on grid segments on the celestial sphere and are not based on patterns.

Star-patterns that have been discovered but have not been officially identified as constellations are called asterisms. The most famous example of an asterism is the big dipper, a constellation that is quite common and is even featured on the Alaskan state flag. The reason why it is not a true constellation is because it is part of a larger constellation called Ursa Major. Constellations that have been officially identified are identified by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

The celestial sphere was officially divided into 88 separate constellations by Eugène Delporte in 1922. Famous Roman constellations, such as Orion, Leo and Scorpius were preserved with their root names intact during this official process. These older constellations were very important to ancient civilizations because they provided a navigation tool for travelers before the invention of the compass (this was during the Age of Discovery).

Actual Proximity of Stars in Constellations:
The stars that are contained within a constellation almost always have no relation to each other in astrophysical terms. When viewed from Earth, however, they appear to be very close to one another. In actuality, stars within the same constellations typically reside many light years apart from each other. The only exception to this notion is the constellation, Ursa Major, which has stars that do lie relatively close to one another.

What is a Star Chart?
A map recorded of the night sky is called a star chart. Since a star chart may be confusing to read, it is simplified by adding grids. The main purpose of using star charts is to locate known astronomical objects, such as stars, planets, galaxies and constellations. A star chart can also be used as a tool for navigation purposes.

The earliest known star chart was carved into the Mammoth tusk, a 32,500 year old diagram discovered in 1972. Thousands of years later, western civilizations began to draw more accurate and complete star charts. During the Age of Discovery, an age known for its significant discoveries from world exploration, the expeditions led to the finding of new constellations. The first significant star chart from this age was the globe of Jodocus Honius, which added twelve new southern constellations.